Public Health Research for Undergraduate Scholars: Start

guides.lib.berkeley.edu/publichealth/undergradscholars

Public Health Librarian: Michael Sholinbeck (msholinb@library.berkeley.edu)

What causes disease?
For any "disease" or condition, you could start by considering interactions among environmental and social factors:

Poor diet, resulting from food choices, "causes" nutritional deficiency or obesity in a population.

But consider:

• Is it "caused" by historical distribution of land use (redlining and racism in the US; colonialism in some other countries)?
• Or by the regulatory environment, including crop subsidies, food inspections, etc.?
• What about the role of NGOs, IGOs, aid networks?
• What about infrastructure, such as food distribution networks, transportation, etc.?
• Is the status of women/girls a factor?
• What about mental health issues?
• What is the role of commercial activity?
• What about the healthcare and health insurance system?

. . . Keep moving upstream!

Also, consider that how issues are framed is influenced by our assumptions and biases.

Below are some examples of questions or lines of inquiry.
Considering what question a research article addresses may help you determine if it is relevant to your needs:

• Are their racial or ethnic disparities in type 1 diabetes mellitus prevalence?
• Compare and contrast personal versus "upstream" factors relevant to these disparities.
• Describe examples of things that could reduce these disparities, differentiating between personal and upstream factors. 
• If a policy or program increases disparities, what are possible reasons for this? Differentiate between personal and systemic factors.
• Describe a plan/program/policy to reduce these disparities.
• Justify why systemic or upstream factors contribute more to these disparities than personal factors.

What is a good Research Question? It is a question that:

• identifies a relevant issue in your field;
• pursues relatively uncharted research territories to address the problem;
• piques the interest of others.

This blog post has tips on how to write a good research question, including examples of bad, good, and great questions.

To reduce bias, it may be best to pose your question in a neutral manner. Examples:

• Neutral question: What is the impact of school-based physical activity interventions on time spent engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity among children, in comparison to children not exposed to school-based interventions?
• Non-neutral question: Which school-based interventions are effective in increasing the amount of time children engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity?

What is the question being addressed in the study you are reading? Compare:

• "Our intervention worked toward fixing Problem X."
• "The most effective interventions for fixing Problem X are: ..."
• "The effects of our intervention on Problem X are: ..."

When you read an article, answer (briefly) the following (source):

• What question are the authors addressing?
• What did they do to answer the question?
• What was their rationale for doing what they did to address their question?
• What were the findings?
• How were the authors think their findings mean?

Finding a systematic review that addresses the question you are interested in can be very helpful: take a look at the search strategy and databases used in the systematic review for tips on your search.

When a topic is new to you and you need an overview of the topic, encyclopediae and textbooks are great at giving an overview or introduction.
Examples:

• AccessMedicine;
• Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology;
• Oxford Textbook of Medicine;
• Encyclopedia of Metagenomics: Environmental Metagenomics.

Use UC Library Search to find encyclopediae and textbooks.

For more detailed exploration of a topic, books provide the focus you want. UC Berkeley has millions of books!
Examples:

• Smart maintenance for human-robot interaction : an intelligent search algorithmic perspective;
• Spatial modeling in GIS and R for earth and environmental sciences;
• Environmental Virology and Virus Ecology.

Use UC Library Search to find books on your topic.

For lab research, handbooks and lab protocols provide information on the materials and procedures for experimental work.
Examples:

• Current Protocols;
• Springer Nature Experiments;
• protocols.io;
• Cold Spring Harbor Protocols;
• Handbook of Immunosenescence;
• Handbook of in Vivo Neural Plasticity Techniques.

The next format type is journals. They report on the findings of current research studies, offering the most up-to-date and detailed information on a topic.
A single journal issue will have many articles, and each article is devoted to a research study. There is a standard pattern in how journal articles are written, and knowing this pattern will help you find the information you need:

• An article’s introduction explains the context of the work and the importance of the research;
• The materials and/or methods section describes the experimental procedures;
• The results report on the data and the outcomes of the work;
• The discussion section interprets the results, whereby the authors explain the meaning and the implications of the research;
• Lastly, there are references to the scholarly works (other articles, etc.) used by the authors.

Finally, databases are what you use to find journal articles. Databases let you search across many (often millions) of journal articles to find the papers relevant to your research topic.
Examples:

• PubMed;
• Web of Science;
• Embase;
• PsycInfo.

Primary research presents original research methods or findings for the first time. A primary source is a document (or object) which was written or created during the time under study, by someone who was present during an experiment or experience, and offers an firsthand view of a particular event. Especially in the sciences, an "experience" or "event" includes a research study or process.

In science, primary literature is the original publication of a scientist's new data, results, and theories.

A good way to evaluate whether or not a scientific article is a primary source is whether the article has a Materials and Methods (or similar) section.  If the article discusses methods, it is likely primary literature.

Secondary literature does not report new findings, and includes review articles and most scholarly or academic books, including textbooks.

It may be useful to have a structure to help guide you when searching. 

When you formulate a research question, consider these elements:

• Phenomenon: What happened?
• Subject or Population: Who did it?
• Time: When did it happen?
• Location: Where did it happen?
• Cause or Motivation: Why did it happen?
• Process: How did it happen?

Note: It is possible that not all of the above elements will be appropriate for your search topic.
This worksheet (docx) will take you through the process of formulating a search.

PICO is another popular way to structure a search.
PICO stands for:

• Patient or Population;
• Intervention;
• Comparison or Control;
• Outcome.

Worksheet: Developing an Efficient Search Strategy Using PICO (docx): A  fillable form that provides a PICO example and prompts you to document synonyms and MeSH headings.

Embase has a PICO search form to guide you.

SPIDER is a search structure used in qualitative research. SPIDER stands for:

• Sample;
• Phenomenon of Interest;
• Design;
• Evaluation;
• Research Type.

Once you have a search strategy, you can try the Polyglot Search tool, which helps to translate a PubMed search into the correct syntax for several other databases, including Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and more.

Words matter!

• Do you want articles on labor or articles on labor? Or is it labour?
• Do you want articles on HIV (a virus) or articles on HIV diseases (such as AIDS)?
• What's the difference between diet, food, food supply, food habits, eating, energy intake, ...?
• Is lead a noun or a verb?

Indexing facilitates more precise search statements, especially for topics that are vague or ambiguous.

• Using index terms helps you avoid the need to think of every possible synonym or alternate spelling of your search terms.
• Indexing means the citations in the database are assigned terms from a "controlled vocabulary." Most topical article databases use a controlled vocabulary.
• But be aware of the fact that indexing schemes are shaped by the cultural milieu from which they originate.
• Index terms are sometimes called descriptors or thesaurus terms; in PubMed they are called Medical Subject Headings, or MeSH.

1. Combine terms with AND or OR
2. Search for your term as a word in the title or title or abstract (You may need to use Advanced Search; in PubMed you can also use Field Tags)
3. Use the Similar Articles link, once you find a set of relevant citations (sometimes it is labelled Related Citations, Similar Records, etc.)
4. Use Filters (sometimes called Facets) (eg, Ages, Article types, Languages, etc.; some databases have a "Peer Reviewed" or "Scholarly" filter!)
5. Use Thesaurus Terms (sometimes called Descriptors; in PubMed they are called MeSH: Medical Subject Headings)
6. Always keep in mind the question you are trying to answer when creating a search strategy and when reviewing the articles you find

• Search Tips/Search Operators (pdf)
• Search Workflow
• Quick Article Evaluation Worksheet